Bioethics and advance directives in psychiatric in the hospital context / Bioética y directrices anticipadas en psiquiatría en el contexto hospitalario

Abstract Introduction Mental health services have been a focus of human rights advocates and recent legal reforms in some Latin American countries, which have called for a change from the paradigm of hospitalization to one of accompanying and supporting the person with mental health issues, which make it possible to apply the Advance Directives in Psychiatry (PADs). This change will require time, as well as economic, material, and human resources, and transformations in attitudes, culture, and society, but the implementation of PADs cannot be postponed: they must be used to protect the autonomy of the persons affected, within a bioethical framework. Objective Identify possible bioethical conditions in the prevailing conventional hospital context in Latin America that allow for an implementation of PADs. Method A participant-observer study was carried out in two psychiatric hospital services from June to September 2022. Results A thematic analysis found three themes: 1) clinical care, 2) patient predisposition, and 3) medical-legal questions. This study considered part of theme 2, including the following sub-themes: a) patient self-perception, b) biography/narrative versus diagnostic classification, and c) negotiation. Discussion and conclusion Prominent among the sub-themes discussed are recognition of the values of autonomy and its elements in all of the expressions of the person with mental illness, as well as actions of the physician or health care team in synergy with supported decision-making, a distinctive feature of the anticipatory process of the PAD.

Resumen Introducción La atención de la salud mental se ha visto emplazada por los Derechos Humanos y las recientes reformas legales en algunos países latinos, que instan a cambiar el paradigma asistencial de la hospitalización al del acompañamiento y apoyo en la toma de decisiones de la persona en condición mental, que posibilitan la aplicación de las Directrices Anticipadas en Psiquiatría (DAP). Este cambio implica tiempo, recursos económicos, materiales y humanos, transformaciones actitudinales, culturales y sociales. No obstante, la implementación de las DAP no puede postergarse, deben aplicarse basadas en el respeto a las personas en un marco bioético. Objetivo Identificar las condiciones bioéticas posibles en el contexto hospitalario convencional, imperante en los países de América Latina, que permitan la implementación de las DAP. Método Se llevó a cabo una observación participante en dos servicios de hospitalización psiquiátrica, entre junio y septiembre de 2022. Resultados A través de un análisis temático se obtuvieron tres temas: 1) atención clínica, 2) predisposición de los pacientes y 3) asuntos médicos-legales. Este estudio consideró sólo una parte del tema 2 con sus subtemas: a) Autopercepción de los pacientes, b) biografía/narrativa versus clasificación y c) negociación. Discusión y conclusión En los subtemas discutidos se resalta el reconocimiento a los valores de la autonomía y sus elementos presentes en todas las manifestaciones de la persona con enfermedad mental, se reconoce también el actuar del médico o equipo de salud en sinergia con la toma de decisiones apoyada, que distingue el proceso anticipatorio de las DAP.

Regulation and self-regulation of ethical practices in scientific publication / Regulación y autorregulación de las prácticas éticas en la publicación científica

Abstract Introduction The process of publication is influenced by a pressure on researchers to demonstrate their competence and productivity by publishing large numbers of articles in indexed journals. But there is a great deal of ignorance regarding the ethical obligations in scientific publication; worse, ethical considerations are often seen as mere formalities in the process of publishing an article. Objective This article discusses the ethical practices related to the publication of a scientific article. It encompasses those defined by forms of external regulation and those that might be identified as forms of self-regulation, and it argues for the greater effectiveness of the latter in scientific publication. Method We performed a literature review and a critical analysis of the information. Results There are negative factors that range from plagiarism and the duplication of articles to the fabrication and falsification of data. Researchers look for convenient solutions, taking refuge in practices condoned, paradoxically, by the very scientific community that condemns them. Rather than avoiding these forms of misconduct, the scientific community even justifies them at times, which means that the practices continue. Discussion and conclusion Self-regulation in scientific publication is a preferable goal: it allows participants in the process to assume their obligations freely and with a greater sense of responsibility.

Resumen Introducción Resulta necesario reconocer que el proceso de publicación está influenciado por factores como la presión institucional que se ejerce sobre los investigadores para que publiquen mayor cantidad de artículos en revistas indexadas, lo cual se usa como parámetro de productividad y capacidad. Pero existe un desconocimiento amplio en relación con las obligaciones éticas de la publicación o, peor aún, muchas veces la ética es vista como mero requisito para la aceptación y publicación de un artículo. Objetivo Este trabajo expone las prácticas éticas implicadas en el proceso de publicación de un texto científico, tanto las que se consideran actualmente regulación externa como aquellas que podrían ser identificadas como autorregulativas, a fin de que éstas últimas puedan imperar dentro de las publicaciones. Método Se realizó una revisión de la literatura sobre la materia y un análisis crítico sobre la información. Resultados Existen efectos negativos que van desde la duplicación de artículos y el plagio hasta la fabricación o falsificación de datos. Incluso, se ha buscado una solución cómoda ante las reglas impuestas por la ética de la publicación, pero algunos investigadores han encontrado amparo en prácticas consensuadas dentro de la propia comunidad científica que, paradójicamente, las condena, y a pesar de ello no evita las vejaciones, incluso las llega a "justificar", por lo que siguen presentándose. Discusión y conclusión La autorregulación debería ser razón suficiente para asumir las obligaciones libremente y con mayor responsabilidad dentro del ámbito de la publicación científica.

Elementos circundantes a los comités de ética que dificultan su razonamiento deliberativo / Elementos circundantes aos comitês de ética que dificultam a sua fundamentação deliberativa / Elements surrounding the ethics committees that hinder their deliberative reasoning

Los comités de ética se encuentran entre las manifestaciones más visibles de la bioética. La aceptación que han recibido estas instancias en los últimos años ha sido amplia, pero poco se puede decir acerca de sus funciones y sus metas, principalmente porque se ha rezagado el estudio del trabajo al interior de los comités. El objetivo de este manuscrito es analizar los elementos circunscritos al proceso interno de los comités de ética que están dificultando su razonamiento deliberativo. Elementos como la ausencia de deliberación desde el saber ético, la tensión entre el marco ético y el legal, las particularidades del campo de la salud dentro del discernimiento ético y la consideración de los comités como grupos, deben reconocerse y discutirse en forma permanente y crítica como trabajo autorregulativo de los comités para, de esta manera, conseguir el consenso social e institucional.

Ethics committees are among the most visible manifestations of bioethics. The acceptance these instances have received in recent years has been extensive, but little can be said about their roles and goals, mainly because the analysis of what happens inside the committees has been lagged behind. The aim of this paper is to analyze the elements involved in the inner processes of ethical committees, which are complicating their deliberative reasoning. Elements such as the absence of deliberation from ethical knowledge, the tension between the ethical and legal frameworks, the particularities of the health care field within ethical discernment and the consideration of committees as groups should be permanently and critically recognized and discussed, as self-regulatory work by committees, in order to achieve social and institutional consensus.

Os comitês de ética se encontram entre as manifestações mais visíveis da bioética. A aceitação que tiveram estas instâncias nos últimos anos foi ampla, porém pouco se pode dizer acerca de suas funções e metas, principalmente porque se tem postergado o estudo do trabalho no interior dos comitês. O objetivo deste manuscrito é analisar os elementos circunscritos ao processo interno dos comitês de ética que estão dificultando a sua fundamentação deliberativa. Elementos como a ausência de deliberação a partir do saber ético, a tensão entre o marco ético e o legal, as particularidades do campo da saúde dentro do discernimento ético e a consideração dos comitês como grupos, devem ser reconhecidos e discutidos de forma permanente e crítica como trabalho autorregulativo dos comitês para, desta maneira, conseguir o consenso social e institucional.

Experiencias sobre el impacto del Programa de Formación en Ética de la Investigación Biomédica y Psicosocial en el ámbito de la salud mental y la investigación conductual / Experiências sobre o impacto do Programa de Formação em Ética da Pesquisa Biomédica e Psicossocial no âmbito da saúde mental e pesquisa comportamental / Experiences about the impact of the Ethics of Biomedical and Psychosocial Research Training Program in mental health and behavioral research field

El propósito de este trabajo es presentar el impacto y la integración que los conocimientos adquiridos en el Programa Internacional de Formación en Ética de la Investigación Biomédica y Psicosocial de la Universidad de Chile han tenido en mi experiencia profesional, en el ámbito de la investigación psicosocial en un Instituto de Salud de México. Para este objetivo, expondré tres áreas en las cuales se ha podido evidenciar tal impacto: trabajo en los comités de ética, desarrollo de programas de académicos en bioética e investigación y publicación sobre ética y bioética. El motivo que me llevó a incursionar en el Programa fue que su enseñanza vincula la investigación psicosocial con la ética y la bioética, lo cual me permitió dirigir este tipo de reflexión hacia problemas como violencia, suicidio, adicciones, depresión y salud mental, y a nuevos campos como los estudios comunitarios, con poblaciones en riesgo o vulnerables, en los cuales las diversas implicaciones son difíciles de indagar.

The purpose of this article is to present the impact and the integration of knowledge acquired in the international ethics of biomedical and psychosocial research training program of the University of Chile has had in my professional experience in the field of psychosocial research at a Mental Health Institute in Mexico. With this purpose, I will develop three areas of clear impact: participation in scientific ethical review committees, development of academic programs in bioethics and research and publication on ethics and bioethics. My motivation to enter in the program was that this training links psychosocial research with ethics and bioethics, which allows me to apply this type of reflection to problems such as violence, suicide, addictions, depression and mental health, and new fields such as community studies with vulnerable or at risk populations, in which the diverse implications are difficult to inquire.

O propósito deste trabalho é apresentar o impacto e a integração que os conhecimentos adquiridos no Programa Internacional de Formação em Ética da Pesquisa Biomédica e Psicossocial da Universidade do Chile tiveram em minha experiência profissional no âmbito da pesquisa psicossocial no Instituto de Saúde do México. Para este objetivo, mostrarei três áreas nas quais foi possível evidenciar tal impacto: trabalho nos comitês de ética, desenvolvimento de programas acadêmicos em bioética e pesquisa e publicação sobre ética e bioética. O motivo que me levou a incursionar no Programa foi que o seu aprendizado vincula a pesquisa psicossocial com a ética e a bioética, o que me permitiu dirigir este tipo de reflexão para problemas como violência, suicídio, toxicofilias, depressão e saúde mental, e a novos campos como os estudos comunitários com populações em risco ou vulneráveis, nas quais as diversas implicações são difíceis de indagar.

Consideraciones éticas en intervenciones comunitarias: la pertinencia del consentimiento informado / Ethical considerations in community interventions: the pertinence of informed consent

Ethics, understood as the study of moral norms in terms of its assumptions, origins, and changes over time, systematizes similarities and differences between various moral codes. It therefore serves as a meeting point between different perspectives, through dialogue, a fundamental characteristic of this discipline. One of its derivations, as applied ethics, is bioethics, defined by Van Rensselaer Potter as "New knowledge that provides knowledge on how to use knowledge for the good of society". Although bioethics emerged in the 1970s under the imperative of medical discourse, its development as a discipline reflecting human behavior surrounding health has permitted the combination of various types of knowledge, including the contribution of social sciences in this field. Thus bioethics deals with the dilemmas that may arise in social studies on health (such as addictions, violence and migrations). The aims of this manuscript are to systematize and explain some of the implications of the pertinence and adaptation of informed consent (IC) in a bi-national Mexico-United States study on mental health and migration. It also provides elements of analysis for the detection of ethical dilemmas in these community interventions in mental health in Mexico. It therefore attempts to answer the following questions: Within the context of bi-national research, how does one deal with the principle of autonomy and the notion of "voluntariness" included in the requirement of informed consent, in public mental health interventions in Mexican rural communities? Is it possible to respect the way participants in the host country make decisions while at the same time, meeting the demands of the ethics committee of the sponsor country? In order to arrive at the elements of analysis, the authors briefly explain the conceptualization of the terms ethics and bioethics, and explore some of the postulates put forward in both North American (principalism and casuism) ...

A pesar de que la bioética surge en la década de 1970, bajo el imperativo del discurso biomédico, su desarrollo como disciplina que reflexiona sobre el comportamiento humano en torno a la salud ha permitido la reunión de varios saberes, entre ellos, la aportación de las ciencias sociales en dicho campo. De esta forma, la bioética se ocupa de los dilemas que pueden presentarse en los estudios sociales sobre salud (adicciones, violencia, migraciones), incluso en aquellos que, por cuestiones de interés común, son de tipo binacional o multicéntrico. Los objetivos de este artículo son sistematizar y exponer algunas implicaciones de la pertinencia y adecuación del consentimiento informado (CI) en un estudio binacional México-Estados Unidos sobre salud mental y migración. Además, se aportan elementos de análisis para la detección de dilemas éticos en estas intervenciones comunitarias en salud mental en México. De esta forma, se intenta responder a las siguientes preguntas: En el contexto de una investigación binacional, ¿cómo encarar el principio de autonomía y la noción de "voluntariedad", insertos en el requerimiento de un consentimiento informado, en intervenciones de salud mental pública en comunidades rurales mexicanas? ¿Es posible respetar la manera en que los participantes del país anfitrión toman decisiones y cubrir, al mismo tiempo, las exigencias del comité de ética del país patrocinador? Para allegarse los elementos de análisis, se expone someramente la conceptualización de los vocablos ética y bioética, y se abordan algunos postulados planteados tanto de la bioética norteamericana como de la europea, además de aproximarnos a otras posturas bioéticas. Por otro lado, se revisan los principales aportes de los diversos códigos, declaraciones e informes internacionales, incluidas las recomendaciones de la Comisión Nacional de Bioética de México, que norman el proceso del consentimiento informado (CI) en investigación social. El CI es un "proceso social que, a través de un intercambio activo y respetuoso, brinda información sobre la investigación en forma comprensible para el sujeto, permite cerciorarse de que la entienda y tenga opción de preguntar y recibir respuestas a sus dudas, brinde oportunidad para negarse a participar o manifestar voluntad de colaborar y pueda expresarla oralmente o firmar un formulario, sin haber sido sometido a coerción, intimidación ni a influencias o incentivos indebidos". En este sentido, el proceso de consentimiento informado (PCI) protege la libertad de elección del individuo y el respeto de su autonomía. Por ello, también se debe considerar el contexto de desarrollo de grupos culturales diversos al del investigador, sus tradiciones en cuanto a comunicación y decisión, y se deben respetar estos procedimientos. En la investigación social, como en ninguna otra, la puesta en práctica de la normatividad del PCI es muy variada, debido a que se trabaja con sectores dispuestos a participar (prostitutas, usuarios de drogas, primo-delincuentes, etc.) a condición de no firmar ningún consentimiento escrito, lo que otorga prioridad a la calidad de la relación establecida y no sólo al formato. Este documento expone la reflexión sobre algunos dilemas éticos que se presentaron durante una investigación social cuyo objetivo fue identificar los malestares emocionales asociados a la migración internacional México-EUA y la utilización de servicios de salud mental. Específicamente, el análisis ético se centra en la información recabada en el trabajo de campo por medio de la técnica observación participante, en una comunidad rural en el estado de Michoacán.

Ética de la investigación psicosocial

resumen está disponible en el texto completo

Summary: The aim of this manuscript is to open up a space for thinking about and debating the issue of ethics in psychosocial research. The ethics of research is put forward in order to identify, deliberate and to a certain extent mitigate the dilemmas arising during the process of generating knowledge. In research, the main questioning focuses on how to behave ethically at the various stages of research, in one's relationships with other scientists and in considering the social responsibility of science. The ethics of research in human beings becomes important when one admits that all kinds of studies contain dilemmas that constitute risks for those that participate in it. However, not all research in human beings is the same; the risks and benefits of biomedical experimentation differ from those that arise in studies in the psychosocial area. Social science research, including psychosocial research, generally entails emotional risks that may trigger mental health disorders and social risks, such as the discrimination or stigmatization of the subjects involved. The ethical dilemmas of social studies are different because they are conceived of in a morally heterogeneous context; in the relativist essence of social sciences; in the canons of scientific objectivity and methodological rigor; in the primacy of subjectivity and the recognition of otherness; in the processes of individuation and the social order; in historicity and culture; in the exercise of power and in the will to know. In other words, in the elements those represent and are inherent to social research. In general, these conflicts are expressed when researchers begin to wonder what to prioritize at the moment of choosing a research issue and the way the latter is undertaken. They also arise over the issue of what to publish and when considering the importance of the problem for the community, mainly at the time of giving back the information to those that participated in the study. As a result of the above, first must be questioned both the design of the work, the method and techniques to be used in achieving objectives and the impact of the study for the scientific and social community. The latter is crucial, since it determines whether or not social intervention policies that are important in people's lives can be implemented. The dissemination of information has often been an issue of great interest and ethical debate, since it involves confidentiality as well as the need for publication and the dissemination of results. In this respect, intellectual honesty and the guarantee that the results of the study will be properly used by researcher are crucial. It is therefore essential to take ethical reflection to other fields of action, where the different ethical implications are difficult to deal with, such as community studies, at-risk or minority populations, as well as the various research methods, such as the qualitative approach. At the same time, ethical problems encountered by social researchers tend to be avoided, perhaps because they are not interpreted as such or because, in the majority of cases, they can be regarded as mistakes or deficiencies by the researcher himself, who is not prepared to reveal them to the scientific community or perhaps because the recognition of a dilemma may influence the acceptance of a research project. Thus social scientists usually only recognize those displayed in biomedical experimentation as ethical dilemmas and therefore do not subject themselves to the ethical codes of these disciplines. It may also be because psychosocial research should not really have to apply ethical standards applied in other disciplines, whose object of study is different from that of social sciences. If it did so, it would be a non-reflexive way of understanding the construction of knowledge derived from social research. On the contrary, the ethics of psychosocial research attempts to problematize and generate reflection and interpretation, from the epistemological and ontological consistency characteristic of the social disciplines, where the ethical conflicts represented in everyday practices are obviated and become unquestionable in research, which is why one has to rethink the responsibility and commitment involved in social science. Thus, psychosocial research should propose its own ethical requirements, without having to make declarations or establishing principles that end up as ethical codes. The point is not to establish norms for the critical behavior of researchers or to recommend universal ethical guidelines. The point is for ethical requirements to arise from the inherent needs of social research, through constant dialog and consensus, the recognition of the ethical dilemmas that emerge and the critical work conducted in this area. The point is to provide rather than establish knowledge, skills and abilities in the interaction with people, to understand the duties of professionals and the rights of participants and to develop the sensitivity to be able to recognize the different cultural nuances, the expressions of group diversity and the vulnerability of the human condition. Unless the issue is examined in depth, ethics in the social field will be threatened by an ethical imperialism that imposes unilateral evaluation criteria on psychosocial research. It would be an ethics whose requirements would become excessively bureaucratic and complied with solely for the purpose of obtaining grants for research. At present, ethical concerns are only entrusted to institutions (Ethical committees) or financing organizations, whether national or foreign, since researchers regard them merely as an imposition that happens to be in vogue, rather than assuming that they are the ones that have the capacity and sensitivity, based on their experience, to identify and mitigate ethical dilemmas. This shows the importance of ensuring that researchers accept the rigorous, ethical review of their work during the entire research process, even at the time of the publication and presentation of results. Hence the need for an ethics committee, whose dialogic function operates with a variety of visions and opinions, that do not prevent debate and instead promote reflection, and which is far removed from belief, intuition, dogma, doctrine and fundamentalism, which would hamper dialog and tolerance and the creation of a space where moral and above all, ethical responsibility should prevail. Ethical dilemmas are inherent to psycho-social research, which is why the main challenge would be to ensure respect for autonomy, bearing in mind the fact that informed consent must be voluntary, individual and/or collective, verbal or written, but above all, a process that only ends after research has been completed. At the same time, researchers must protect the confidentiality, privacy and common good of those being researched, and avoid damage, discrimination and stigmatization. In short, efforts must be made to maximize benefits, in other words, to protect the rights and well-being of research subjects. In psychosocial research, one is ethically obliged to problematize and critically reflect on one's work and the way one behaves, in other words, one's ethos as researchers, with responsibility and moral commitment towards those being researched.

Self-esteem, depressive symptomatology, and suicidal ideation in adolescents: results of three studies / Autoestima, sintomatología depresiva e ideación suicida en adolescentes: resultados de tres estudios

Summary: Suicidal behavior has different levels: ideation, contemplation, planning and preparation, attempt, and consummation. Likewise, suicidal behavior comprises all the actions aimed at achieving suicide. During adolescence there is a tendency to a reduction of emotional well-being. Thus, adolescents may engage in dangerous behavior, extreme narcissism and individualization, exclusion and social isolation. Another element playing an important role during adolescence is self-esteem. Low self-esteem could lead to apathy, isolation, and passivity. Conversely, high self-esteem is associated with more active lives, a greater control over circumstances, less anxiety and greater capacity to cope with internal and external stress. Although there are other factors that could predispose adolescents towards suicidal behavior, certain studies have identified depressive symptomatology as the most powerful and independent risk factor in suicidal ideation and it has been argued that it should be regarded as an expression of severe depression. The purpose of this study is to explore the existence of a relationship between low self-esteem and depressive symptomatology with suicidal ideation and to explore if gender has an effect in this interaction. Data were obtained from three different samples of Mexican adolescent students. The instruments used were the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, the CES-D, and the Roberts Suicidal Ideation Scale. Women showed a higher frequency of low self-esteem than men in two studies. In another, men had a significantly higher frequency of low self-esteem. Regarding depressive symptomatology, women obtained higher scores than men. No significant differences were found in one study. The percentages of high suicidal ideation displayed greater variability by gender and by study. Among the subjects who reported high suicide ideation, a greater proportion of women tended to have low self-esteem, though these differences were not significant in any study. Over half of the women in each study reported higher suicidal ideation and depressive symptomatology than men, with significant differences only among junior high students in two studies. The exploration of the link between depressive symptomatology and high suicidal ideation showed significant differences by gender, a finding which might be linked to the fact that women are more allowed to express their depressive or fatalistic feelings and thoughts or death wishes, whereas among men this type of ideas are perceived as a sign of weakness. Gender-related differences in low self-esteem were only found in one study; men had a higher percentage than women. The comparison of low self-esteem in subjects with high suicidal ideation did not reveal any statistical difference by gender, despite it has been identified as a risk factor for suicidal behavior. In the other hand, results of depressive symptomatology concurred with international literature about this being a determinant factor in the presence of suicidal ideation in women. Considering the objective of this study, three main conclusions can be suggested. First, low self-esteem is not significantly linked to suicidal ideation, perhaps because it is a risk factor more associated with suicidal behavior. Second, depressive symptomatology was related to suicidal ideation, and although this relationship and the one between depressive symptomatology and self-esteem have been reported before, it is important to note that there seems to be a domino effect among these problems. This effect could begin with depressive symptoms linked to suicidal ideation, which in turn could affect self-esteem, and subsequently trigger suicidal behavior. And third, differences between men and women raise the question of whether these are caused by intrinsic characteristics in a biological-genetic substrate inherent to each gender or whether they are determined by the cultural context and the formative patterns existing in the groups to which the subjects belong.

Resumen: El problema del suicidio ha cobrado mayor relevancia en años recientes. Esto se debe a la magnitud que ha alcanzado. El suicidio tiene un carácter multifactorial, es complejo, dinámico y creciente en nuestro país. A su vez, la autoestima baja y el malestar depresivo se han vinculado con la conducta suicida en la adolescencia; los individuos vulnerables enfrentados a factores estresantes o que implican riesgo pueden llegar a presentar ideación o alguna conducta suicida. El malestar depresivo se ha identificado como el factor de riesgo más importante para la ideación suicida. Esta se presenta de manera diferente en hombres y en mujeres, por lo que se cree que su impacto está matizado por las características de los roles de género. El propósito de este estudio es explorar si la autoestima baja y la sintomatología depresiva se relacionan con la ideación suicida, y si el sexo surte un efecto sobre esta interacción. Los datos se obtuvieron de tres estudios con adolescentes estudiantes mexicanos. En el primero (secundaria, 1992-1993, Delegación Tlalpan), se utilizó un muestreo no probabilístico. La muestra incluyó a 423 adolescentes (56% hombres y 44% mujeres, con una media de edad de 13.86±1.2 años). En el segundo (secundaria y bachillerato, 1996-1997, Delegación Coyoacán) participaron 816 adolescentes: 406 de secundaria (49% hombres y 51% mujeres, con una media de edad de 13.27±1.1 años), y 410 de bachillerato (51% hombres y 49% mujeres, con una media de edad de 17±4.3 años). El muestreo fue no probabilístico. El tercero (secundaria, 1998-1999, Centro Histórico) incluyó a 936 estudiantes (54% hombres y 46% mujeres, con una media de edad de 13.7±1.8 años). El muestreo fue no probabilístico. Los tres estudios fueron transversales. El instrumento incluyó la Escala de Autoestima de Rosenberg, la CES-D y la Escala de Ideación Suicida de Roberts. Se calcularon los puntos de corte para cada escala por sexo para identificar a los sujetos con baja autoestima, sintomatología depresiva e ideación suicida alta. En dos estudios, las mujeres alcanzaron frecuencias más altas de autoestima baja, aunque las diferencias no fueron significativas. En el de 1999, los hombres tuvieron una frecuencia de autoestima baja significativamente más elevada que las mujeres. A su vez éstas alcanzaron puntajes significativamente más altos de sintomatología depresiva en los estudios de 1996 y 1999. En el caso de la ideación suicida, sólo hubo diferencias significativas en el estudio de 1999. Las mujeres con ideación suicida mostraron porcentajes más elevados de autoestima baja (diferencia no significativa) y de sintomatología depresiva (con diferencias significativas en los estudios de 1996 y 1999) que los hombres. La comparación de autoestima baja en los sujetos con ideación suicida no reveló diferencias significativas por sexo, a pesar de que éste se ha identificado como un factor de riesgo importante para la conducta suicida. Por otro lado, los resultados de sintomatología depresiva coinciden con lo reportado a nivel internacional en el sentido de considerar el sexo como un elemento determinante para la presencia de ideación suicida en las mujeres. Teniendo en consideración el objetivo de este trabajo, se pueden señalar tres conclusiones: la autoestima baja no se asoció significativamente con la ideación suicida; esto se puede deber a que ésta es un factor de riesgo más relacionado con la conducta. Asimismo, la sintomatología depresiva se asoció con la ideación suicida, y aunque ésta y la que se da entre la sintomatología y la autoestima ya se han reportado, es importante señalar que parece haber un efecto en cadena entre estas problemáticas. Este efecto se originaría en los síntomas depresivos ligados con la ideación suicida, la cual puede afectar a la autoestima y ésta, a su vez, dispararía la conducta suicida. Finalmente, las diferencias entre hombres y mujeres dejan abierto el debate sobre si éstas se originan en factores biológicos inherentes al sexo o si están determinadas por los patrones de formación influidos por su parte por elementos contextuales caracterizados culturalmente.